Sino-Mini (小舌): Reference Grammar 1.6.2

9 September 2026

Sino-Mini, called 小舌 (xiǎo shé) in the language itself, is a deliberately simplified descendant of Mini. Its words are written with simplified Chinese characters and read with Mandarin-derived pronunciations, while its grammar follows a small set of explicit, regular rules.

Sentences normally follow subject–verb–object order. An optional opening topic, including a prepositional phrase or adverb, is followed by a comma before the subject. Three structural particles make the main relationships visible: 咿 introduces a verbal predicate, 诶 a quality or state, and 啊 a noun complement or object. Words do not change their form for person, number, gender, or tense. Time is supplied by context or time expressions; aspect can distinguish a bounded event, an ongoing action, and prior experience. 不 is the single negator.

The language builds longer expressions through consistent word order. Verbs can stack to express ideas such as wanting to begin doing something. Possessive pronouns go directly before nouns; 的 groups modifiers and separates manner expressions. Prepositions and 可 clauses follow the expression they modify. Active and passive participles let predicates participate in larger phrases without conjugation.

Each of the 984 words has its own defined meaning. Longer expressions combine these meanings through the grammar; they do not acquire separate dictionary definitions. Mandarin provides the characters and readings, but Sino-Mini is a distinct language: its explicit structure and regular constructions take precedence over Mandarin idiom.

Complete vocabulary · Vocabulary workbook

Contents

1. Writing and readings
2. The three predicate frames
3. Nouns and noun phrases
4. Pronouns and reference
5. Qualities, quantity, and degree
6. Possession, existence, and location
7. Prepositions and spatial expressions
8. The verbal predicate
9. Modals and scope
10. Time without tense
11. Aspect
12. Negation
13. Results and changes of state
14. Verb stacking and activities
15. Embedded clauses and speech
16. Relative clauses and participles
17. Questions and answers
18. Comparisons
19. Commands and requests
20. Coordination and dependent clauses
21. Topics, omission, and discourse
22. Numbers, measures, and dates
23. Connected examples
24. Quick reference

1. Writing and readings

Use the simplified character forms selected in the wordlist. Each word is written with one character. Longer expressions are phrases or grammatical constructions. A frequently used phrase does not acquire a separate dictionary definition. Unique written words do not imply unique pronunciations: homophones remain.

Normal punctuation marks clause boundaries. Proper names, including 小舌, may retain their established spelling.

The three structural particles introduce verbal, descriptive, and nominal expressions. They form the predicate frames described in §2.

咿 replaces the earlier spelling 伊 for the verbal marker, retaining yī. Its Chinese use represents sounds such as creaking and babbling; its predicate-marking function is a Sino-Mini assignment. 在 咿 and 从 咿 use the same new component. 啊 remains ā and 诶 remains ēi.

咿, 诶, and 啊 retain their selected sound-based readings. Their grammatical functions are Sino-Mini functions, not the independent Chinese meanings of those characters. The reading ēi is retained even though it is an approximation of Mini's original vowel.

Pinyin in this reference gives citation readings. Ordinary tone sandhi is not transcribed. Neutral-tone readings and words with more than one selected reading are explained in their relevant sections. Read each word with its listed reading, without compound-specific sound changes. A grammatical neutral reading such as experiential 过 is explicitly specified in its own section.

Square brackets in examples reveal a constituent's boundaries. They are teaching notation, not spoken words. English labels in pattern tables are explanatory placeholders, not language vocabulary.

2. The three predicate frames

The careful register keeps all required predicate markers. Basic transitive clauses follow subject–verb–object order.

01. 我 咿 买 啊 书。

wǒ yī mǎi ā shū。

I buy a book / books. Time and number depend on context.

02. 书 诶 好。

shū ēi hǎo。

The book is good.

03. 我 啊 人。

wǒ ā rén。

I am a person.

04. 我 咿 泳。

wǒ yī yǒng。

I swim.

There is no additional obligatory copula. A location can be predicated with 诶 followed by a locative phrase:

05. 其 诶 在 家。

qí ēi zài jiā。

They are at home. Here “they” is gender-neutral singular unless context makes it plural.

啊 has two positions but one broad task: introducing a noun complement. When it is the first predicate marker, it introduces identity or classification. After a verbal predicate, it introduces the noun-object region. A 可 clause belongs to the preceding head's modifiers; it does not enter that noun-object region, so no 啊 is called for. Do not add 咿 before an ordinary identity or quality statement.

Negation follows the predicate marker and precedes the material being denied:

06. 这 啊 不 书。

zhè ā bù shū。

This is not a book.

07. 书 诶 不 好。

shū ēi bù hǎo。

The book is not good.

In the identity frame, 啊 不 noun denies category membership or identity. It does not create a general negative-noun construction. In an action clause, do not use a bare 啊 不 noun to negate the action; put 不 in the verbal predicate instead.

Words may have several conventional uses. 食 can name food or eating; 开 can describe opening or an open state. The particles reveal a word's role, but do not invent its meaning. A water word does not automatically acquire every possible adjective meaning related to water. Use the wordlist's meanings and the regular constructions described here.

3. Nouns and noun phrases

Nouns have no articles, case endings, grammatical gender, or obligatory plural endings. A bare noun can denote an individual, a set, a substance, or a category as context requires. 一 means the number one; it is not a compulsory indefinite article.

Within a noun phrase, ordinary modifiers precede the head, while prepositional, 可, and 从 咿 modifiers follow it. A common order is:

(possessive modifier) + (这 / 那) + (number or quantifier) + (description) + head noun + (introduced modifiers)

An uninterrupted sequence nests to the right: A B C = A [B C]. 的 (neutral de) changes local grouping by separating two assembled units. It replaces the earlier grouping word 噢. The noun frame still makes the left unit a modifier of the right unit; 的 contributes grouping, not an additional ownership relation.

Personal pronouns used before nouns are possessive without any extra particle: 我 书 means my book, 你 家 your home, and 其 友 their friend. The same applies to plural pronouns: 我 们 家, our home. Do not insert 的 merely because the modifier is a possessor.

08. 我 这 三 书。

wǒ zhè sān shū。

These three books of mine. This is a noun phrase, not a full statement.

这 marks proximity and 那 distance, including previously mentioned things. Neither requires a classifier. A numeral makes quantity explicit; without one, number can remain contextual.

A simple quality directly modifies its following noun:

09. 好 书。

hǎo shū。

A good book / good books. Noun phrase.

For a description that is itself a phrase, 的 makes its intended grouping explicit:

10. 很 好 的 书。

hěn hǎo de shū。

A very good book / very good books. Noun phrase.

Read this as [很 好] 的 书: very modifies good, and that unit modifies book. The reason for 的 is the grouping, not a rule that counts the number of words in an adjective phrase.

99. 小 狗 房。

xiǎo gǒu fáng。

A small house for dogs: 小 modifies 狗 房. Noun phrase.

100. 小 狗 的 房。

xiǎo gǒu de fáng。

A house for small dogs: 小 狗 is grouped before 房. Noun phrase.

Without 的, 小 modifies 狗 房: a small house for dogs. With 的, 小 狗 forms a unit before 房: a house for small dogs. The dog–house relationship comes from the phrase's meanings, not from a supposed possessive meaning of 的.

The same operation groups a complex possessor:

11. 我 友 的 书。

wǒ yǒu de shū。

My friend's book. Noun phrase.

Read this as [我 友] 的 书: first form my friend, then let that person modify book with the ordinary ownership interpretation. 的 itself does not mean belonging to. Other noun modifiers may express material, purpose, or association; grouping alone does not choose among those relations. Use a clause when the intended relation needs to be stated explicitly.

A grouped unit can participate in another grouping. At the same phrase level, successive 的 boundaries are read left to right: A 的 B 的 C = [[A B] C]. They do not open or close full clauses. Prefer an explicit noun or a short 可 description when a long chain would be difficult to follow.

All combinations use ordinary modification or another stated grammatical construction. 算 机 means a calculating machine. It may identify a computer in context, but it does not secretly encode every feature of a modern computer. A book-related establishment is 书 馆; say whether it lends books, sells them, or performs another service when that distinction matters. Phrases are examples of the rules, not vocabulary additions. 的 groups phrases using the same rule at every length.

There is no compulsory classifier system. 三 书 means three books. Real measure units remain meaningful nouns: a mass unit or a container contributes an actual quantity. The core does not require a universal 个.

A prepositional phrase after a noun modifies that noun. In 书 在 家, the location belongs to the book. An event-location phrase belongs inside the verbal region instead (§7). Relative descriptions with 可 and passive participles with 从 咿 follow the same head-first introduced-modifier pattern (§16).

4. Pronouns and reference

Bare personal pronouns default to singular in a context without an established group. They may refer to an established group; use 们 (neutral men) when explicit plurality matters. In this version, 们 attaches only to these personal pronouns. Other nouns use context, numbers, or quantifiers. 其 们 is a deliberate Sino-Mini formation, preserving the selected gender-neutral 其; it is not presented as the ordinary Mandarin third-person plural.

There is no mandatory inclusive/exclusive distinction in 我 们. Specify the people involved when that distinction matters. Pronouns have the same form as subjects, objects, and possessors.

自 refers to the subject of its local clause. Repeat a noun or personal pronoun for someone outside that clause, rather than making 自 refer across an intervening subject.

12. 我 咿 爱 啊 自。

wǒ yī ài ā zì。

I love myself.

13. 我 们 咿 泳。

wǒ men yī yǒng。

We swim.

14. 其 们 咿 来。

qí men yī lái。

They come / are coming, as supplied by context.

Possessive modifiers are the unchanged pronouns 我, 你, 其, 我 们, 你 们, and 其 们. Their position before the noun phrase supplies the possessive interpretation; no 的 is inserted. For an independent expression such as “mine,” use an explicit possessed noun, such as 我 物, or a possession statement with 有.

5. Qualities, quantity, and degree

A quality predicate needs 诶, not 咿 and not an obligatory very word. An optional degree word precedes the quality.

15. 我 咿 买 啊 多 书。

wǒ yī mǎi ā duō shū。

I buy many books.

16. 书 诶 很 好。

shū ēi hěn hǎo。

The book is very good.

17. 书 诶 太 大。

shū ēi tài dà。

The book is too big.

很 is never inserted solely to make a quality predicate grammatical. 好 alone after 诶 means good; 很 好 means very good. 太 expresses excess, not merely emphasis.

Number and quantifier phrases occupy the quantity slot of a noun phrase. Use 的 when an intended grouped modifier differs from the default right-nested reading: [很 好] 的 书 is the explicit very-good-book grouping. Word count alone does not require a particle.

A property is not automatically an action. Use 诶 for the state, a licensed verb for an event, or 变 for a transition into the state. The aspect system does not erase this distinction.

6. Possession, existence, and location

Possession uses 有 in an ordinary action frame. Existence uses Mini-style subjectless 啊; ambient qualities use subjectless 诶. A location remains a marked relation and never serves as an implied subject.

18. 我 咿 有 啊 书。

wǒ yī yǒu ā shū。

I have a book / books.

21. 我 咿 不 有 啊 书。

wǒ yī bù yǒu ā shū。

I have no book / books.

有 means possession here. It does not introduce an existential or a have-perfect. Non-possession is 不 有; there is no second negative word.

19. 啊 人 在 家。

ā rén zài jiā。

There is someone at home.

20. 啊 水 在 这 处。

ā shuǐ zài zhè chù。

There is water here.

In example 19, 人 is the introduced entity and 在 家 modifies 人. The sentence has no subject. The location follows the noun under the ordinary attachment rule. A location may be omitted: 啊 人 asserts the presence or existence of a person.

113. 不 啊 人 在 家。

bù ā rén zài jiā。

There is nobody at home.

Initial 不 negates the whole existential frame. This contrasts with a subject's negative identity: 这 啊 不 书 means this is not a book. 不 啊 书 means there is no book. These are distinct, explicitly defined positions; they do not license arbitrary word movement.

114. 诶 冷。

ēi lěng。

It is cold; an ambient quality.

115. 诶 不 冷。

ēi bù lěng。

It is not cold.

116. 啊 雨。

ā yǔ。

There is rain.

Subjectless 诶 describes the ambient situation, so 冷 means it is cold; it does not stand for an omitted person. Subjectless 啊 can introduce a phenomenon such as 雨, rain. An identified entity's location still uses its own subject, as in example 05. A clause beginning 家 咿 有 would instead assign 家 the possessor role.

These are defined subjectless declarative frames. Initial 咿 remains a command, and ordinary finite action statements retain their subjects. The selected object/identity character is 啊 throughout; 阿 is not an alternate spelling.

7. Prepositions and spatial expressions

Inside a clause, a preposition precedes its complement and follows the expression it modifies. A prepositional phrase may also stand in the sentence’s opening topic position, followed by a comma before the subject (§21). The comma separates this sentence-level setting from modifiers attached to a particular word.

A preposition introduces its noun phrase. A 可 clause can instead modify the relation itself, as in 因 可 其 诶 病; the head's meaning supplies the relation to the described situation. Another preposition starts a sibling phrase at the same attachment level. The 比 standard of a degree expression remains inside that expression, including when it describes manner (§18); the following ordinary event relation resumes the event level. To describe a landmark internally, use a relative clause or identify it in a separate sentence; adjacency does not silently change levels. 可 is a clause introducer, not a pair of general-purpose noun-phrase brackets.

22. 我 咿 阅 在 家 啊 书。

wǒ yī yuè zài jiā ā shū。

I read a book at home.

Spatial relations also use relation + landmark. Thus 上 桌 means on the table and 下 桌 means under the table. Do not reverse the order into 桌 上 or add a compulsory 在 before a more specific spatial relation.

23. 书 诶 上 桌。

shū ēi shàng zhuō。

The book is on the table.

24. 我 咿 泳 跟 你。

wǒ yī yǒng gēn nǐ。

I swim with you.

25. 我 咿 写 用 笔 啊 字。

wǒ yī xiě yòng bǐ ā zì。

I write characters with a pen.

26. 我 咿 买 给 你 啊 书。

wǒ yī mǎi gěi nǐ ā shū。

I buy a book for you.

跟 replaces 与 for accompaniment. An instrument uses 用, so “with you” and “with a pen” have distinct semantic relations. 和 remains noun coordination. The previous heel word 跟 moves to 踵 to preserve unique word assignments.

27. 我 咿 给 给 你 啊 书。

wǒ yī gěi gěi nǐ ā shū。

I give a book to you.

In 我 咿 给 给 你 啊 书, the first 给 is the main verb; the second starts the recipient phrase. 啊 closes the event-modifier region and starts the direct object. The recipient phrase cannot move after 书 while keeping the same attachment: 书 给 你 describes a book intended for you.

28. 我 咿 来 从 家。

wǒ yī lái cóng jiā。

I come from home.

29. 我 咿 往 啊 家。

wǒ yī wǎng ā jiā。

I go toward home.

往 marks direction and does not assert arrival. 到 is the ordinary verb for reaching or arriving; its 啊 object is the destination:

30. 我 咿 了 到 啊 家。

wǒ yī le dào ā jiā。

I arrived at home. 到 asserts reaching the destination.

Independent prepositional modifiers of the same head may occur in either order within that head's modifier region. There is no ranked source–recipient–companion–instrument–location sequence. Attachment remains strict: crossing 啊 changes an event modifier into an object-noun modifier. Coordinate multiple participants of one relation when appropriate.

117. 我 咿 写 用 笔 在 家 啊 字。

wǒ yī xiě yòng bǐ zài jiā ā zì。

I write characters at home with a pen.

118. 我 咿 写 在 家 用 笔 啊 字。

wǒ yī xiě zài jiā yòng bǐ ā zì。

I write characters at home with a pen. The sibling event phrases have the same attachment as in 117.

Both sentences describe writing at home with a pen. The second preposition starts another modifier of 写, not a description of the first preposition's landmark. A 可 modifier that opens a dependent clause comes after the head's other modifiers; its internal phrases belong to that clause until the main-clause return boundary (§15).

Clause-wide time frames, prepositional phrases, and adverbs share the opening topic position (§21). Each opening topic ends with a comma. Inside the clause, the attachment positions described above remain fixed.

从 supplies source, not a general translation of every English of/about/by. Possessive pronouns are bare; 的 can group a complex modifier; instruments use 用 and causes use 因. No ordinary preposition becomes a tense marker. The sequences 在 咿, 在 诶, 在 啊, and 从 咿 are productive grammatical constructions (§16). Their interpretation is selected by position, not by a compound lexicon.

7.1 Purpose with 为

为, wèi, introduces a purpose after the expression it modifies. It can take a named goal or a full clause introduced by 可. Its placement follows the ordinary attachment rules: an event-purpose phrase follows the verb and precedes any 啊 noun object; a noun-purpose phrase follows its noun.

150. 我 咿 劳 为 可 我 们 咿 有 啊 食。

wǒ yī láo wèi kě wǒ men yī yǒu ā shí。

I work so that we have food. This states a purpose, not its successful achievement.

The clause following 可 specifies the intended outcome and its own subject. Working does not entail obtaining food. 给 remains recipient/beneficiary, while 因 supplies a cause: a beneficiary, a reason an event happened, and an intended outcome are different relations.

151. 我 咿 买 为 可 你 咿 能 学，啊 书。

wǒ yī mǎi wèi kě nǐ yī néng xué，ā shū。

I buy a book so that you can learn. The comma returns to the outer purchase and its object.

The purpose clause follows 买. The comma closes the dependent expression and returns to the main clause, whose 啊 书 supplies the purchased object. Moving 为 after 书 would attach the purpose to the book. An opening purpose topic follows the general topic-comma rule (§21). The only adopted reading of 为 is wèi.

8. The verbal predicate

The formal event frame is:

(topic，) subject 咿 [operator/verb stack] (的 manner) (event prepositional phrases) (啊 first noun object) (啊 licensed second object) (诶 result-quality)

A 可 clause can modify the verbal head in its modifier region. It follows the other modifiers of that head and normally continues to the end of the containing clause. It does not open a noun-object region. An inner 啊 belongs to the inner clause, not an omitted outer object.

The frames specify order; a verb's lexical frame determines which arguments are required or allowed (§14.5). A descriptive continuation after an object assigns a result to that object. A descriptive continuation without an object concerns the subject (§13).

8.1 Stacking versus modification

An uninterrupted verb sequence is a stack: each member governs the action to its right. A following descriptive word must not be silently treated as an adverb just because that reading seems more natural. 的 separates the action unit from a manner unit.

101. 我 咿 开 快 啊 车。

wǒ yī kāi kuài ā chē。

I begin speeding up the car. 开 governs the action 快.

102. 我 咿 开 的 快 啊 车。

wǒ yī kāi de kuài ā chē。

I start the car quickly. 的 separates the action from its manner.

In example 101, 快 is an action—speed up—and 开 governs it. In example 102, the boundary separates 开 from the manner 快, so the car is started quickly. The difference follows from grouping, rather than a special rule for the word fast.

31. 我 咿 阅 的 慢 啊 书。

wǒ yī yuè de màn ā shū。

I read a book slowly.

32. 我 咿 阅 的 很 慢 啊 书。

wǒ yī yuè de hěn màn ā shū。

I read a book very slowly.

The same 的 grouping operation is used in noun phrases. In a noun phrase, the left group describes the following nominal head; in the verbal frame, the right descriptive group gives the manner of the action. These directions are supplied by the phrase frame, not by two different meanings of 的. The particle is read de and replaces the old 噢 assignment.

A comparative manner unit includes its degree operator, quality, and following 比 standard (§18). 比 belongs to that comparison expression. Another event preposition, an 啊 object boundary, or a clause-return boundary ends the manner region; a clausal modifier follows the ordinary dependent-clause rules. Outside a comparison, the next preposition starts the event-modifier region as before. It is not another action in the stack. Repeated same-level manner groups continue describing the same action; they do not restart bare stacking or return to an outer clause.

8.2 Scope in a longer stack

A trailing manner or event phrase modifies the innermost lexical action. The preceding stack members govern that modified action. Thus 欲 阅 的 慢 means wanting to read slowly, not slowly wanting. This position rule also governs a following instrument or location.

To modify an outer action instead, make that action the head of its own verbal region and give it a 可 clause describing the inner event. Examples 111–112 in §14 show the contrast. 的 is a local grouping boundary; it is not an arbitrary parenthesis system for full clauses.

8.3 Location and ongoing action

Location 在 and progressive 在 occupy different positions:

33. 我 咿 在 阅 在 家 啊 书。

wǒ yī zài yuè zài jiā ā shū。

I am reading a book at home.

The first 在 is an operator before 阅. The second introduces the location after 阅. The operator needs an action expression; the relation needs its location. Neither position makes the location a subject.

All grammatical aspect now follows the operator-before-action rule: 了 阅, 在 阅, and 过 阅. There is no postverbal aspect slot or free clause-ending 了.

9. Modals and scope

Retain a small inventory of ordinary modal meanings:

They precede the action and share its subject. No infinitive marker is inserted.

34. 我 咿 欲 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī yù yuè ā shū。

I want to read a book.

35. 我 咿 能 泳。

wǒ yī néng yǒng。

I can swim.

Operators are interpreted from left to right, with each governing what follows. Negation before a modal denies that modal; negation after it denies the embedded action.

36. 我 咿 不 能 泳。

wǒ yī bù néng yǒng。

I cannot swim.

37. 我 咿 能 不 泳。

wǒ yī néng bù yǒng。

I can refrain from swimming.

38. 我 咿 不 需 往 啊 家。

wǒ yī bù xū wǎng ā jiā。

I do not need to go home.

39. 我 咿 需 不 往 啊 家。

wǒ yī xū bù wǎng ā jiā。

I need to refrain from going home.

A modal does not assert that its action occurred. Ability to finish, desire to buy, and actual completion are distinct. Aspect has the same scope discipline as other operators: it describes the action expression following it, not automatically every outer operator. Use time expressions to locate a desire or ability in time. A syntactically valid operator sequence still needs a meaningful interpretation.

There is no dedicated would auxiliary. Express the condition and the relevant ability, desire, or consequence. The demonstrative 那 is not a conditional-tense marker.

Long stacks are grammatically interpretable by scope, but the careful style prefers two short clauses when several layers of desire, possibility, negation, and aspect would compete.

10. Time without tense

Verbs do not change for past, present, or future. Time comes from context or an optional expression such as 今 日 (current day), 昨 (yesterday), 继 日 (the succeeding day), 今, 前, 后, or a date. 继 日 means tomorrow only when the reference day is today. 明 means bright, not next or future.

A clause-wide time frame is an opening topic and must end with a comma: 昨，我 咿 买 啊 书。 The ordinary subject follows that comma. In an already defined subjectless construction, the comma instead precedes 啊 / 不 啊, 诶, or a command’s 咿. The time frame does not freely move between the subject and 咿. In a passage, an established time continues until it is changed or ordinary discourse makes a new time clear.

40. 昨，我 咿 买 啊 书。

zuó，wǒ yī mǎi ā shū。

Yesterday I bought a book. No obligatory past or aspect marker.

41. 继 日，我 咿 买 啊 书。

jì rì，wǒ yī mǎi ā shū。

Tomorrow I will buy a book. No obligatory future marker.

42. 昨，我 诶 不 冷。

zuó，wǒ ēi bù lěng。

Yesterday I was not cold.

The same principle applies to quality and identity predicates. No verbal auxiliary must be added merely because the quality held yesterday.

从 does not mark past. 往 does not mark future. 有 does not form a perfect. 已 still means already. Prior experience uses preverbal 过 (guo); redundant 曾 is retired in vocabulary revision 5. Explicit time expressions locate previous occurrences. There are no obligatory tense inflections.

11. Aspect

Aspect describes how an action is presented. 了 (neutral le), 在 (zài), and 过 (neutral guo) are verbal aspect operators. Time remains supplied by context or explicit time expressions. Every aspect operator precedes the action expression it governs, just as a modal or negator does. Keep operators and stack members separate in teaching materials: 了 完 阅.

11.1 Perfective 了

43. 我 咿 了 买 啊 一 书。

wǒ yī le mǎi ā yī shū。

I bought one book, viewed as an event that occurred.

了 precedes its action expression. It does not follow the verb or stand freely at the end of a sentence. The same position applies inside a stack or a dependent clause.

An affirmative, nonmodal statement with perfective 了 presents its event as having occurred in the relevant context. Inside a condition, a future sequence, or another nonasserted context, it does not independently assert past occurrence. Example 88 illustrates this distinction.

Perfective does not itself say that every intended goal was achieved:

44. 我 咿 了 阅 啊 这 书。

wǒ yī le yuè ā zhè shū。

I read this book on an occasion; finishing all of it is not asserted.

45. 我 咿 了 完 阅 啊 这 书。

wǒ yī le wán yuè ā zhè shū。

I finished reading this book.

In 了 完 阅, 完 governs the reading and contributes completion; 了 presents that completion as a bounded occurrence. This is the ordinary nesting rule, not a special postverbal result construction.

11.2 Progressive 在

46. 我 咿 在 阅 啊 这 书。

wǒ yī zài yuè ā zhè shū。

I am in the course of reading this book.

Progressive 在 precedes an ongoing action expression. It does not automatically turn a quality, identity, or possession into an action. Use an ordinary state predicate for being good, being a person, or having a book.

11.3 Experiential 过

47. 我 咿 过 阅 啊 这 书。

wǒ yī guo yuè ā zhè shū。

I have read this book before, as a prior experience.

The operator 过 is neutral guo, distinguished from lexical guò, pass. It presents prior occurrence as experience. It does not introduce a used-to tense; an explicit past time frame with an unmarked action can describe a past habit.

11.4 Scope and limits

An aspect operator applies to the expression following it. A stack beginning 了 完 阅 therefore has the interpretation perfective(finish(read)). A modal outside an aspect expression can make the described action desired, possible, or required without asserting it. Position alone does not supply a sensible meaning for every possible combination.

For this core reference, retain at most one of 了, 在, or 过 for a given action expression. 完 is an ordinary completion verb and does not count as a second aspect operator. Descriptions requiring multiple aspect viewpoints can use separate clauses until those combinations are explicitly defined.

There is no independent sentence-final change-of-state 了, double-了 construction, or durative 着. Express a change through a change verb or an explicit result description.

12. Negation

不 is the only grammatical negator. It denies the following constituent, including actions, qualities, identity, possession, existence, modals, and aspect-marked expressions. Its form does not change with the next verb or the time reference.

48. 我 咿 不 买 啊 书。

wǒ yī bù mǎi ā shū。

I do not buy books / will not buy a book, in context.

49. 昨，我 咿 不 买 啊 书。

zuó，wǒ yī bù mǎi ā shū。

Yesterday I did not buy a book.

The difference between these examples comes from the time frame, not the negative word.

Keep aspect under negation. 不 了 阅 denies a bounded reading occurrence in the relevant interval; 不 在 阅 denies ongoing reading; 不 过 阅 denies prior experience. 不 scopes over the expression containing the aspect operator; no aspect operator is deleted or moved.

50. 我 咿 不 在 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī bù zài yuè ā shū。

I am not in the course of reading a book.

51. 我 咿 不 过 阅 啊 这 书。

wǒ yī bù guo yuè ā zhè shū。

I have never read this book within the relevant experience period.

52. 我 咿 不 了 完 阅 啊 这 书。

wǒ yī bù le wán yuè ā zhè shū。

I have not finished reading this book; I may have read part of it.

In the last example, 不 denies a bounded completion of reading. Some reading may still have occurred. The difference between 不 了 阅 and 不 了 完 阅 comes from the additional completion action, not a second negative construction.

Negation inside a stack follows the same rule. 不 能 泳 denies ability; 能 不 泳 asserts an ability to refrain. 不 欲 停 阅 and 欲 不 停 阅 differ in which action is denied (§14). Before 全, 不 denies an all-claim; after 全, it applies the negative to every member (§21).

The same 不 is used in commands and before 有. 没 has no grammatical role. 不 alone does not mean yet; give the relevant time interval when translating not yet.

从不 and 永不 remain lexical combinations containing the same negator, for habitual and future/unbounded never respectively. Prior-experience negation uses the two-word expression 不 过; redundant 不曾 is retired. In a suitable time context, 还 不 means not yet and does not mean no prior experience. Do not join 不 过 into 不过, the unrelated Mandarin however word.

13. Results and changes of state

13.1 State versus change

53. 门 诶 开。

mén ēi kāi。

The door is open.

54. 门 咿 了 开。

mén yī le kāi。

The door opened. 了 precedes the opening action.

诶 introduces a state description. 咿 introduces an action expression. In example 54, 了 precedes the opening action; it does not attach to the quality predicate of example 53.

13.2 Explicit results and ordinary completion stacks

Bare verb sequences have one default interpretation: stacking. They do not also form a productive result-compound construction. State a result affecting an object explicitly after that object:

55. 我 咿 了 推 啊 门 诶 开。

wǒ yī le tuī ā mén ēi kāi。

I pushed the door into an open state. The object receives the explicit result description.

The door is the object of pushing and receives the resulting open condition. The general post-object 诶 continuation states that result; the reader need not guess whether 开 is an adverb, another action, or an unmarked object-result word. A relative clause or noun-attached 从 咿 description instead identifies or describes the object (§16).

Finishing an action fits stacking directly:

93. 我 咿 了 完 洗 啊 衣。

wǒ yī le wán xǐ ā yī。

I finished washing the clothes; 完 governs the washing action.

94. 我 咿 能 完 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī néng wán yuè ā shū。

I can finish reading the book; ability does not assert actual completion.

完 governs the following action, whether washing or reading. 能 完 阅 expresses ability to finish, without asserting that finishing happened. In 了 完 洗, perfective scope includes the completion of washing. Completion alone does not guarantee every imaginable cleanliness standard.

Use 到 as an ordinary arrival verb, as in example 30. There are no lexicalized multi-character verbs. Juxtaposing words always uses the stated stack/modifier rules; a result must use an explicit result construction.

13.3 General change 变

变 is the general change/become verb alongside lexical 化. It takes a quality with 诶 or a category with 啊. Put 了 before 变 when presenting that transition as a bounded event.

56. 我 咿 了 变 诶 好。

wǒ yī le biàn ēi hǎo。

I became well / good, in the relevant context.

57. 这 房 咿 了 变 啊 医 院。

zhè fáng yī le biàn ā yī yuàn。

This building became a medical establishment. Specify its services if a hospital specifically is intended.

化 remains an ordinary transformation word. 来 retains coming/motion; it is not the general become auxiliary.

13.4 Descriptions and affected participants

Without a noun object, a descriptive continuation concerns the subject:

58. 我 咿 感 诶 好。

wǒ yī gǎn ēi hǎo。

I feel good.

With a noun object, the post-object description states its result:

59. 我 咿 做 啊 门 诶 开。

wǒ yī zuò ā mén ēi kāi。

I cause the door to be open. Generic result construction.

In the second example, 做 supplies general causation and 门 receives the open condition. The first example is a feeling with a subject description. The grammar identifies the participant receiving the description; the meanings of 感, 变, and 做 still distinguish feeling, becoming, and causing. Position does not erase those lexical differences.

13.5 Permission and a different actor

A 可 clause modifies 让 by specifying the permitted event and its actor:

60. 我 咿 让 可 你 咿 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī ràng kě nǐ yī yuè ā shū。

I let you read a book. The clause describes the permitted event, not automatically an accomplished event.

The default reading is permission. The sentence does not automatically assert that the permitted action was performed or that the actor was coerced. State the actual result separately when necessary.

The clause is an ordinary modifier of 让. It has its own actor and clause particles. No noun-object region is opened for the outer predicate, so no 啊 is omitted; no closing word is added.

13.6 Causing an event with 做

做 可 expresses general causation. 可 modifies 做 with a complete clause naming the caused event and its participants; it does not open an unmarked noun object or create a new clause type.

152. 雨 咿 做 可 我 们 咿 停 劳。

yǔ yī zuò kě wǒ men yī tíng láo。

Rain causes us to stop working.

The cause need not be a willing actor: rain can cause an event. In an affirmative, unmodalized causal assertion, the caused event is asserted in the relevant time context. Negation, a modal, or a hypothetical frame can place the causal claim within its scope; wanting to cause something does not assert that it happened.

153. 我 咿 做 可 其 咿 变 啊 教 人。

wǒ yī zuò kě qí yī biàn ā jiāo rén。

I cause them to become a teacher.

变 inside the event clause supplies becoming a category. The established 做 啊 object 诶 quality construction remains available for a caused quality. 让 continues to mean permission and does not automatically assert performance. No new 致 or 迫 word is required.

In the 做 可 frame, the caused clause has no outer direct-object patient. 从 咿 cannot promote its subject. The existing noun-object frame of 做 still permits passive participles of its own first direct object.

14. Verb stacking and activities

14.1 The general stacking rule

Each bare verb governs the action expression to its right. A stack uses one outer 咿 and shares the clause's subject referent, whose semantic role depends on the verb. Parentheses show the interpretation:

103. 我 咿 欲 能 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī yù néng yuè ā shū。

I want to be able to read the book.

104. 我 咿 需 开 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī xū kāi yuè ā shū。

I need to start reading the book.

105. 我 咿 欲 停 泳。

wǒ yī yù tíng yǒng。

I want to stop swimming.

106. 我 咿 完 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī wán yuè ā shū。

I finish reading the book; time is supplied by context.

107. 我 咿 试 开 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī shì kāi yuè ā shū。

I try to start reading the book.

Stacking is productive wherever the leading word's meaning can operate on an action. It is not a special finite list of infinitive-taking verbs. But bare juxtaposition does not supply arbitrary meaning: independent events such as eating and sleeping must be coordinated or stated separately, not assumed to mean then merely because their verbs are adjacent.

A leading action does not automatically assert its following action. Wanting, trying, being able, beginning, stopping, and finishing contribute their own meanings. The nesting operation stays the same.

14.2 Negation within a stack

108. 我 咿 不 欲 停 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī bù yù tíng yuè ā shū。

I do not want to stop reading the book.

109. 我 咿 欲 不 停 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī yù bù tíng yuè ā shū。

I want not to stop reading the book.

The first denies wanting to stop. The second expresses a desire not to stop. No different negative particle, auxiliary form, or word-order exception is needed.

14.3 Objects and modifier scope

Each following 啊 object belongs to the innermost lexical action, in that verb’s licensed argument order. Outer stack members govern that action with its object. A trailing event preposition or manner group also modifies that innermost action:

110. 我 咿 试 写 用 笔 啊 字。

wǒ yī shì xiě yòng bǐ ā zì。

I try to write characters with a pen. The instrument belongs to the writing.

111. 我 咿 欲 阅 的 慢 啊 书。

wǒ yī yù yuè de màn ā shū。

I want to read the book slowly. The manner belongs to the innermost action, 阅.

The pen is used for writing; the slowness describes reading. There is no automatic division of multiple objects among stack members. Nor does a stack silently transfer an inner action to a recipient or another actor.

To describe an outer action's manner instead, give that action its own verbal region and attach the inner event with 可:

112. 我 咿 试 的 慢 可 我 咿 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī shì de màn kě wǒ yī yuè ā shū。

I slowly attempt to read the book. The manner modifies the outer 试; the reading has its own clause.

Here 的 慢 describes 试; the inner reading clause has its own 咿 and 啊. The same technique makes an actor change explicit. Neither a new infinitive particle nor a general closing particle is needed.

14.4 Named activities and simple stacks

An activity can also be named directly:

61. 我 咿 爱 啊 泳。

wǒ yī ài ā yǒng。

I love swimming.

Here 啊 introduces 泳 as an activity noun. A longer predicate can be named with 在 咿, 在 诶, or 在 啊; an ordinary event head 事 with a following 可 modifier is also available (§16).

62. 我 咿 开 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī kāi yuè ā shū。

I start reading a book. 开 is the retained Sino-Mini open/start word.

63. 我 咿 停 阅 啊 书。

wǒ yī tíng yuè ā shū。

I stop reading a book.

开 before an action expresses beginning that action. 开 followed by its own 啊 object expresses opening or starting that object, according to the object's meaning. 的 can separate a manner description from either form (§8). These interpretations follow from the action or noun expression being governed, not an infinitive or participle ending.

The active participles 在 咿 / 在 诶 / 在 啊 and passive participle 从 咿 are defined in §16. Bare stacks need none of these markers between their verbs.

14.5 Verb argument frames

The position rules are general; word meanings determine the available argument frames. The following table makes the most relevant core uses explicit. It is a controlled inventory of these uses, not a claim that any word can take any complement. Extend lexical frames explicitly when adding a new usage.

134. 我 咿 名 啊 这 子 啊「明」。

wǒ yī míng ā zhè zǐ ā「míng」。

I name this child Ming. Target first, assigned name second.

135. 我 咿 食。

wǒ yī shí。

I eat / engage in eating. A licensed objectless frame.

136. 雨 咿 停。

yǔ yī tíng。

The rain stops. Rain is the subject of an intransitive stopping event.

137. 我 咿 视 可 门 诶 开。

wǒ yī shì kě mén ēi kāi。

I see that the door is open. A perceived state, not a caused result.

The naming target and name are different arguments, so each has 啊. The eating frame is independently objectless, while rain is the subject of an intransitive stopping event. The perception example uses a full 可 clause to describe a state; it does not reinterpret a result marker. Bare stacks share a subject referent, not necessarily a voluntary actor.

15. Embedded clauses and speech

15.1 A clause is another head modifier

A 可 clause modifies the preceding head. 可 (kě) introduces the clause. It uses the same head-before-introduced-modifier order as a prepositional phrase:

64. 我 咿 想 可 你 咿 来。

wǒ yī xiǎng kě nǐ yī lái。

I think that you are coming.

65. 我 咿 知 可 你 咿 了 买 啊 书。

wǒ yī zhī kě nǐ yī le mǎi ā shū。

I know that you bought a book.

In example 64, 可 你 咿 来 modifies 想. It is not an 啊-marked object with its marker exceptionally omitted. 啊 starts a noun-object region; 可 introduces a modifier of the head already present. That explains the form without an alternative object-marking rule or a list of special thought verbs.

Inside the modifier, the clause has its own ordinary structure. In example 65, 啊 introduces the inner object 书. It does not leave the inner clause or open an object region for the outer verb.

The meaning of the head determines how the modifier contributes: the content of thinking, the situation giving a reason, or the description of a book. These semantic differences do not require different placement rules.

权 accepts a complete 可 clause specifying the action authorized; the subject inside the clause is explicit. An entitlement does not assert occurrence or practical ability. 法 权 is ordinary modification. For an incentive, use 诱 with an explicit event or describe what makes an action attractive; a phrase does not acquire a special noun-specific argument frame.

To put an event into a noun position, name the activity directly, use an active participle (§16.5), or use a head such as 事 with its own 可 modifier. A bare initial clause-introducing 可 does not by itself make a noun phrase.

95. 我 泳 诶 好。

wǒ yǒng ēi hǎo。

My swimming is good. 我 modifies the activity noun 泳.

Here 我 modifies the activity noun 泳, and 诶 introduces the quality predicated of that noun phrase. For a full event description with 事, see example 70.

15.2 Clause boundaries and scope

A final introduced dependent expression extends to the end of the sentence unless a clause-boundary comma and corresponding clear pause end it. Place modifiers of a head before its final clausal modifier. Within an open dependent expression, later particles belong to that expression.

A return boundary ends every open dependent expression and resumes the main clause. It never returns just one level or to an intermediate embedded clause. This applies to 可 clauses, active participles, and 从 咿 passive participles. A boundary after a complex subject therefore lets the main predicate begin. An initial condition is an opening topic. Its comma returns to the sentence level, where another comma-delimited topic may follow before the main subject (§21). The continuation must fit the still-unfilled position of the main clause.

97. 我 咿 想 可 你 咿 知 可 其 咿 来。

wǒ yī xiǎng kě nǐ yī zhī kě qí yī lái。

I think that you know that they are coming. Successive clausal modifiers nest to the right without closing words.

Successive final modifiers nest to the right. No closure follows 来. A comma can instead resume the main clause after a nested subject description:

119. 人 可 咿 知 可 你 咿 写 啊 书，咿 来。

rén kě yī zhī kě nǐ yī xiě ā shū，yī lái。

The person who knows that you write books comes. The comma closes both dependent clauses and resumes the main clause.

The main subject is the person. The first relative supplies that person as the missing subject of 知; its final 可 clause has a complete subject–predicate structure. The boundary closes both dependent clauses, so the final 咿 来 predicates coming of the main subject. It cannot resume the inner knowledge clause.

This rule deliberately limits expressible nesting. If a dependent expression needs its own continuation after another embedded expression, split the thought into shorter sentences or use a separately named event. Do not reinterpret a comma as an arbitrary one-level closing bracket. Quoted speech has its own sentence domain and explicit quotation boundaries (§15.4). Ordinary list punctuation is not a return boundary; teaching examples use a clear clause-boundary comma before a resuming predicate or main subject.

15.3 Questions and their scope

Interrogative 可 occupies an answer position inside a clause; clause-introducing 可 precedes a dependent clause. Their functions follow from the surrounding structure. Example 71 uses both in one sentence.

An unquoted sentence-final 吗 asks about the entire statement, including a statement containing a clausal modifier:

96. 我 咿 想 可 你 咿 来 吗？

wǒ yī xiǎng kě nǐ yī lái ma？

Do I think that you are coming? Unquoted sentence-final 吗 asks about the whole statement.

Thus example 96 asks whether I think you are coming. It does not mean that I know the answer to an inner question about your coming.

To give a polar question its own embedded scope, quote it or state the question and then refer to its answer:

98. 我 咿 知 可「你 咿 来 吗？」。

wǒ yī zhī kě「nǐ yī lái ma？」。

I know the answer to “Are you coming?” Quotation gives the inner question its own scope.

Quotation marks in writing, and a clear quotation intonation or explicit reporting context in speech, distinguish that inner question from a question about the outer statement. There is no contrast based on the position of a closing particle.

15.4 Direct speech

Quoted speech can follow 可. The quotation has its own wording and question scope:

66. 我 咿 问 可「你 咿 来 吗？」。

wǒ yī wèn kě「nǐ yī lái ma？」。

I ask: “Are you coming?”

For ordinary indirect reporting, omit the quotation marks. 可 remains the clause introducer, with no additional 啊 and no closing word. If a quotation or a pronoun's reference would be unclear in speech, state the report in separate short clauses.

16. Relative clauses and participles

A relative clause follows the noun it modifies and begins with the same 可 clause introducer. Inside it, exactly one subject or object is supplied by the head noun. This brings relative attachment into the same head-before-dependent order as noun-attached prepositional phrases.

16.1 Object relatives

Omit the recovered object and its 啊 marker:

67. 书 可 我 咿 了 买，诶 好。

shū kě wǒ yī le mǎi，ēi hǎo。

The book I bought is good. The comma marks a return from the relative to the outer predicate.

书 is the head. In its relative clause, 我 is the subject and the missing object of 买 is that book. The comma marks the end of the relative before the outer 诶 好 begins. Do not retain an empty 啊 at the end of the relative.

16.2 Subject relatives

Omit the recovered subject, retaining the predicate marker:

68. 人 可 咿 写 啊 书，咿 了 来。

rén kě yī xiě ā shū，yī le lái。

The person who writes books came.

The opening 人 可 establishes a relative attached to 人; its initial 咿 is therefore a predicate with a relative subject gap, not a command. A subject relative can similarly begin 诶 for a quality or 啊 for an identity. The head fills exactly that one role.

A clausal modifier of a thought or relation head describes a complete situation; a relative modifier of a noun has one recovered participant in the current specification. Do not omit several participants or strand a preposition. For “the person to whom I gave the book,” use two clauses with an explicit recipient pronoun until a more general relative-role system is specified.

16.3 Passive participles with 从 咿

从 咿 (cóng yī) forms a passive participle from a verbal expression. It corresponds to Mini's de-i. It follows a noun as an introduced modifier, or follows 诶 as a descriptive predicate. Here 从 takes a predicate introduced by 咿 as the input of a productive passive construction. This is syntax, not a listed compound. Ordinary 从 followed by a noun names a source; these positions distinguish the two uses.

69. 书 从 咿 写。

shū cóng yī xiě。

A book described as written; a noun phrase. Time and completion are not specified.

120. 书 诶 从 咿 写。

shū ēi cóng yī xiě。

The book is written; a passive sentence using a participle, with contextual time and aspect.

The noun described fills the first direct-object role of the innermost lexical verb. That object slot and its 啊 are consumed; the underlying subject is unspecified. Remaining licensed objects keep their order. The passive is available only for a verb frame with a direct object. It cannot promote a 给 recipient or turn an intransitive 来 into “come to.”

Aspect and stacking remain inside the verbal expression:

121. 书 诶 从 咿 在 写。

shū ēi cóng yī zài xiě。

The book is being written.

122. 书 诶 从 咿 了 写。

shū ēi cóng yī le xiě。

The book underwent a bounded writing event; finishing it is not asserted.

123. 书 诶 从 咿 了 完 写。

shū ēi cóng yī le wán xiě。

The writing of the book was completed.

124. 书 诶 不 从 咿 了 完 写。

shū ēi bù cóng yī le wán xiě。

The book has not undergone completed writing in the relevant interval.

从 咿 itself means neither past nor completed. The difference between 了 写 and 了 完 写 remains the difference between a bounded writing event and completion. A modal inside 从 咿 still does not assert occurrence. Outer 不 denies the whole passive participle; moving it inside may change scope relative to the unspecified subject and is not an equivalent rearrangement.

The double-object naming frame illustrates the first-object rule:

125. 这 子 诶 从 咿 名 啊「明」。

zhè zǐ ēi cóng yī míng ā「míng」。

This child is named Ming. The assigned name is the remaining second object.

The child supplies the first object of 名, leaving the assigned name after 啊. No alternative promotion of the second object is licensed.

Ordinary 从 continues to mean source, including inside a passive expression:

126. 书 从 咿 收 从 你。

shū cóng yī shōu cóng nǐ。

The book received from you; the receiver is unspecified. Noun phrase.

127. 书 可 我 咿 收 从 你。

shū kě wǒ yī shōu cóng nǐ。

The book I receive from you. Noun phrase; I am the receiver and you are the source.

The first phrase leaves the receiver unspecified. The second explicitly names 我 as receiver through a normal active relative. Neither 从 你 phrase names the receiver: both name the source. Use an active 可 relative when the actor matters; this version adds no ambiguous source/agent use and no 由 marker.

A passive participle can be placed inside an active participle to name the passive situation:

128. 在 诶 从 咿 视。

zài ēi cóng yī shì。

Being seen. A passive situation named by an active participle, not a complete statement.

On its own, 从 咿 forms a passive participle describing an affected participant. It does not also name an event or supply an omitted patient noun. For a thing being described, retain an explicit head such as 物 从 咿 写. There are no 从 诶 or 从 啊 forms: quality and category predicates have no direct object to supply. This mechanism does permit passive sentences through 诶; the language is no longer passive-free, but it needs no separate 被 construction.

16.4 Events and propositions

事 可 complete-clause names a described event or situation. 事 is the noun head; the 可 clause modifies it. This is a content specification of 事, not a relative with a missing participant:

70. 事 可 我 咿 买 啊 书，诶 好。

shì kě wǒ yī mǎi ā shū，ēi hǎo。

My buying a book is a good thing. A full clause specifies the event named by 事.

A simple activity can also be named directly, as in example 95. When 事 is a noun object, 啊 precedes 事 normally and the 可 clause remains a modifier of 事. When a 可 clause modifies the verb itself, no noun head or 啊 is inserted.

For a relative, keep an overt head such as 人 or 物. A gapped relative cannot stand alone and rely on an omitted noun. This keeps complete content clauses distinct from relative descriptions.

16.5 Active participles with 在 咿, 在 诶, and 在 啊

在 咿 (zài yī) forms an active participle from a verbal expression. 在 诶 and 在 啊 are its quality and category counterparts. These correspond to Mini’s en-i, en-e, and en-a. Here the active participle is used as a noun phrase naming an action, state, or category membership. Its internal predicate keeps its normal structure. 在 retains its separate location and progressive uses in their respective positions.

The construction uses the ordinary predicate marker after 在 inside the noun phrase. It does not itself mark progressive aspect or any time. The contained predicate retains its licensed objects, negation, aspect, stacks, and modifiers in their ordinary positions. Do not repeat the predicate marker: 在 咿 阅 is already the complete introduction of the active participial expression.

129. 在 咿 阅 啊 书，诶 益。

zài yī yuè ā shū，ēi yì。

Reading books is beneficial.

130. 在 咿 不 阅 啊 书，诶 不 好。

zài yī bù yuè ā shū，ēi bù hǎo。

Not reading books is not good.

131. 在 诶 冷，诶 不 好。

zài ēi lěng，ēi bù hǎo。

Being cold is not good.

132. 在 啊 人，诶 难。

zài ā rén，ēi nán。

Being human is difficult.

Each comma ends the dependent active participle so that the main 诶 predicate can begin. 在 咿 不 阅 names not reading; it does not deny the existence of the named activity. A pronoun immediately before an active participle can specify the inner subject, in the same way that 我 identifies the participant in 我 泳:

133. 我 咿 爱 啊 我 在 咿 阅 跟 你 啊 书。

wǒ yī ài ā wǒ zài yī yuè gēn nǐ ā shū。

I love my reading books with you. The second 我 identifies the inner subject.

Here 我 before 在 咿 identifies the reader, 跟 你 modifies the reading, and the inner 啊 introduces its book object. Without an explicit subject modifier the participant is unspecified; it is not silently controlled by an outer recipient. This is a licensed nonfinite form, not permission to omit ordinary finite subjects. Use a full 可 clause when multiple participants or deeper nesting would obscure scope.

A simple lexical activity noun such as 泳 remains sufficient when no internal predicate structure is needed. 在 咿 does not additionally form an active relative: use 人 可 咿 写 啊 书 for a person who writes. The active participles name actions, states, or category membership; 可 describes a head through a clause, and 从 咿 describes an affected object.

17. Questions and answers

17.1 Yes/no questions

Append 吗 (neutral ma), the yes/no question marker, to a statement. Do not invert the subject and verb.

72. 你 咿 了 买 啊 书 吗？

nǐ yī le mǎi ā shū ma？

Did you buy a book?

吗 follows the full statement, including any clausal modifier or descriptive complement. Unquoted sentence-final 吗 has outer question scope (§15). The aspect and negation rules inside the question remain unchanged. This is the standard neutral polar-question construction; rising intonation alone is available conversationally but is not the careful written form.

17.2 Answers

嗯 (ǹg) is the affirmative interjection yes. 不 (bù) gives a short negative answer: no. A full affirmative or negative clause is also clear.

Pronounce 嗯 as one syllabic ng with a falling tone, without adding a vowel. The selected Chinese reading expresses affirmation or assent; 小舌 uses it only for an affirmative response. It is not a copula, a question particle, or an expression of doubt. The earlier affirmative word 是 is retired. Chinese reading and meaning.

你 咿 来 吗？

nǐ yī lái ma

Are you coming?

Answer a negative question with an explicit positive or negative clause whenever a bare yes/no would be ambiguous. For 你 咿 不 来 吗？ (Aren’t you coming?), 我 咿 来。 states that you are coming, and 我 咿 不 来。 states that you are not. The language does not require a separate verb-echo answer paradigm.

A-not-A questions, a large inventory of question tags, and multiple question-final particles are outside the core specification.

17.3 Content questions

可 is the retained sound-based question word. Its reading is kě; it is not the ability modal 能. It occupies the position where the answer would go.

73. 你 咿 了 买 啊 可？

nǐ yī le mǎi ā kě？

What did you buy?

Use the preposition needed by the role: 在 可 处 for a location, 用 可 式 for a method, and 因 可 因 for a cause/reason. These are regular Sino-Mini question expressions, not assertions about ordinary Mandarin meanings of the same character sequences. In 因 可 因, the first 因 is the causal relation and 可 因 is the interrogative noun phrase “what reason.” Repeated vocabulary does not create a special question rule.

74. 你 咿 泳 在 可 处？

nǐ yī yǒng zài kě chù？

Where do you swim?

75. 可 人 咿 了 来？

kě rén yī le lái？

Who came?

76. 你 咿 有 啊 可 数 书？

nǐ yī yǒu ā kě shù shū？

How many books do you have?

Do not normally add 吗 to a clause that already asks for information with 可. Such a clause is not a polar question. The same character 可 also introduces dependent clauses. Distinguish that function from an unknown item by its position and the following clause structure (§15).

An embedded content question keeps the same order:

71. 我 咿 知 可 你 咿 了 买 啊 可。

wǒ yī zhī kě nǐ yī le mǎi ā kě。

I know what you bought. The first 可 introduces the clause; the second is the questioned object.

18. Comparisons

18.1 One pattern for greater, lower, and equal degree

subject 诶 degree quality 比 standard

77. 你 诶 更 大 比 我。

nǐ ēi gèng dà bǐ wǒ。

You are bigger than me. 更 states greater degree; 比 introduces the standard.

154. 你 诶 减 大 比 我。

nǐ ēi jiǎn dà bǐ wǒ。

You are less big than me. A lower degree does not require an opposite adjective.

78. 我 诶 同 大 比 你。

wǒ ēi tóng dà bǐ nǐ。

I am as big as you. Equal degree uses the same 比 standard relation.

比 means compared with; it does not itself mean greater. Every stated scalar comparison includes 更, 减, or 同 before its quality. Greater, lower, and equal comparisons all introduce their standard with 比. 跟 retains accompaniment and co-participation, rather than marking scalar equality. 同 expresses exact sameness/equality outside this degree pattern too. Loose resemblance uses 像.

The standard can be omitted when context already establishes it: 这 诶 更 好。 means this is better relative to that known standard. Without a comparison, 这 诶 好。 simply describes this as good. The earlier bare quality 比 pattern and 同 quality 跟 pattern are superseded.

The quality names the scale. 减 好 means less good, not necessarily bad; 减 要 means less important, not necessarily unimportant. 减 in this position compares degrees, while its ordinary arithmetic use still means subtraction.

18.2 Negation

不 precedes the degree operator and denies that comparison:

155. 我 诶 不 更 高 比 你。

wǒ ēi bù gèng gāo bǐ nǐ。

I am not taller than you: I may be shorter or equally tall.

156. 我 诶 不 减 高 比 你。

wǒ ēi bù jiǎn gāo bǐ nǐ。

I am not less tall than you: I may be taller or equally tall.

157. 我 诶 不 同 高 比 你。

wǒ ēi bù tóng gāo bǐ nǐ。

We are unequal in height; the direction is not specified.

On an ordered scale, 不 更 permits equality or a lower degree; 不 减 permits equality or a higher degree. 不 同 means unequal and specifies neither direction. It must not inherit the English conversational implication that “not as tall” always means shorter. These interpretations require a meaningful shared scale; an undefined or incomparable quality is not silently assigned a numeric value.

18.3 Comparisons inside manner descriptions

The whole degree + quality + 比 standard expression can describe manner after 的:

158. 我 咿 泳 的 更 快 比 你。

wǒ yī yǒng de gèng kuài bǐ nǐ。

I swim faster than you. The standard concerns your swimming speed.

Here 更 快 比 你 describes the swimming speed. A participant used as the standard is compared on the same named action and quality: the example compares my swimming speed with your swimming speed. It does not compare swimming with an arbitrary unstated action. For different actions or unclear participants, compare explicitly named measures.

比 remains inside the comparative description. An ordinary event preposition or the outer 啊 object boundary resumes the surrounding verbal region:

159. 我 咿 阅 的 更 快 比 你 在 家 啊 书。

wǒ yī yuè de gèng kuài bǐ nǐ zài jiā ā shū。

I read a book at home faster than you do. 在 家 modifies my reading; 啊 书 is its object.

在 家 locates my reading, while 啊 书 is the object of 阅. It does not make 你 在 家 the comparison standard. Use the ordinary relative-clause or separate-sentence strategy for a standard that needs its own introduced modifiers.

18.4 Quantities and measures

Compare quantities by naming them as noun phrases and applying the same quality comparison:

160. 我 书 的 数 诶 更 大 比 你 书 的 数。

wǒ shū de shù ēi gèng dà bǐ nǐ shū de shù。

The number of my books is greater than the number of yours.

161. 这 书 的 价 诶 减 高 比 那 书 的 价。

zhè shū de jià ēi jiǎn gāo bǐ nà shū de jià。

This book has a lower price than that book, using the same monetary scale.

The first example compares two book counts, not books with a person. The second compares prices on the same monetary scale. Price units and the comparison interval must agree or be stated explicitly. This construction does not introduce the alternative dimension-comparison pattern that uses 更 or 减 as a complete predicate without a quality.

18.5 Maximum and minimum

Use 最 更 quality for the maximum and 最 减 quality for the minimum within the established comparison set:

79. 这 书 诶 最 更 好。

zhè shū ēi zuì gèng hǎo。

This book is the best in the established comparison set; ties are possible.

162. 这 书 诶 最 减 好。

zhè shū ēi zuì jiǎn hǎo。

This book is the least good in the established comparison set; ties are possible.

163. 我 诶 最 更 高。

wǒ ēi zuì gèng gāo。

I am tallest in the established comparison set.

164. 我 诶 最 减 高。

wǒ ēi zuì jiǎn gāo。

I am least tall in the established comparison set.

最 selects an extreme; 更 or 减 selects its direction. Both parts are required in the careful register. 最 更 好 is best and 最 减 好 is least good. 最 更 高 is tallest and 最 减 高 is least tall. No opposite adjective or new minimum particle is required, and 那 remains a demonstrative.

最 减 selects the lowest degree of the quality, not the largest decrease over time. Negating a maximum merely denies being at that maximum; it does not assert the minimum. State the comparison set in context. An extreme need not be unique: several members can tie for the maximum or minimum. Without an explicit set, a superlative does not mean best or worst in the entire world.

19. Commands and requests

An ordinary command omits its understood second-person subject but retains 咿:

80. 咿 开 啊 门！

yī kāi ā mén！

Open the door!

Negate it with 不:

81. 咿 不 开 啊 门！

yī bù kāi ā mén！

Do not open the door!

不 is the same negator used in statements, existential clauses, and questions. Commands introduce no separate negative word.

A question about ability can serve as a polite request in context:

82. 你 咿 能 开 啊 门 吗？

nǐ yī néng kāi ā mén ma？

Can you open the door? Also a polite request in context.

This version does not require a special politeness particle or a separate negative-imperative word. A request to enter a state can use 变; a state description by itself should not silently become a causative command.

Keep a declarative subject even when context makes it recoverable. An initial 咿 without a subject marks a command; it is not a casual abbreviation for a declarative statement. Existentials, ambient-quality clauses, and marked relative gaps are explicitly defined subjectless finite constructions. Active participles also allow an unspecified inner subject (§16.5).

20. Coordination and dependent clauses

20.1 Coordination

和 coordinates noun phrases or complete clauses. 或 presents alternatives; 但 introduces contrast. Keep the full subject and predicate marker in each coordinated finite clause. Noun phrases coordinated inside one subject or object share that phrase's marker.

83. 我 咿 了 买 啊 书，但 我 咿 不 了 阅 啊 其。

wǒ yī le mǎi ā shū，dàn wǒ yī bù le yuè ā qí。

I bought a book, but I have not read it.

啊 is an object marker, not a conjunction. Coordinate items filling a single argument role with 和. Repeat 啊 only for distinct argument roles licensed by the innermost verb, such as 名: target first, assigned name second (§14.5). Use a clear pause and punctuation, or separate sentences, when the scope of coordination would otherwise be unclear.

20.2 Relations to whole clauses

A clause-level relation precedes its clause, which is introduced by 可. The same relation can take a noun in a normal prepositional slot when its meaning permits it. The full clause needs no closing particle.

84. 因 可 其 诶 病，我 咿 了 来。

yīn kě qí ēi bìng，wǒ yī le lái。

Because they are ill, I came.

85. 若 可 你 咿 来，则，我 咿 给 给 你 啊 书。

ruò kě nǐ yī lái，zé，wǒ yī gěi gěi nǐ ā shū。

If you come, I will give you a book.

86. 虽 可 书 诶 大，我 咿 能 取 啊 其。

suī kě shū ēi dà，wǒ yī néng qǔ ā qí。

Although the book is big, I can take it.

87. 当 可 我 咿 在 阅 啊 书，你 咿 了 来。

dāng kě wǒ yī zài yuè ā shū，nǐ yī le lái。

While I was reading a book, you came.

These clause-wide settings and conditions occupy the general opening topic position. Each must be followed by a comma in writing, with a corresponding boundary in speech. Each embedded finite clause keeps its own predicate marker. The comma returns to the sentence level. If 则 introduces the consequence, it is another opening adverbial topic and also takes a comma: 若 可 你 咿 来，则，我 咿 给 给 你 啊 书。 A cause modifying an event directly instead follows the verb in its event-modifier region: 我 咿 来 因 可 其 诶 病.

若 does not mean whether. An embedded polar question is quoted or expressed through an explicit reference to its answer (§15). Paired conjunctions are not compulsory: 若 does not require 则, and 虽 does not require a matching 但.

20.3 Before and after clauses

前 or 后 precedes its complement, just as any other relation does. A full-clause complement begins with 可:

88. 继 日，后 可 我 咿 了 买 啊 书，我 咿 阅 啊 其。

jì rì，hòu kě wǒ yī le mǎi ā shū，wǒ yī yuè ā qí。

Tomorrow, after I buy a book, I will read it. 了 is inside a future-time sequence, not a past-tense marker.

The sequence takes place tomorrow. 了 presents the purchase as the bounded first event relative to the later reading; it does not move the purchase into the past relative to speech. The comma marks the end of the embedded clause before the main clause starts. There is no separate postposed temporal-clause rule.

21. Topics, omission, and discourse

An optional topic stands before the subject and must be followed by a comma:

topic，subject + predicate

This is one rule for a noun topic, a time expression, an opening prepositional phrase, or an opening adverb. In speech, mark the same boundary with a pause. The opening material sets the context for the main clause; the comma shows exactly where that context ends and the ordinary clause begins. Without the comma, material cannot be read as a detached opening topic.

191. 在 家，我 咿 阅 啊 书。

zài jiā，wǒ yī yuè ā shū。

At home, I read a book. The prepositional topic ends before the subject 我.

192. 即，我 咿 来。

jí，wǒ yī lái。

Immediately, I come. The opening adverb is followed by a comma.

In the first example, 在 家 sets the location for the clause; 我 is its subject. The second uses 即 as an opening adverb. Inside the clause, prepositional phrases and manner expressions retain their usual attachment and order: 我 咿 阅 在 家 啊 书。 places 在 家 in the event-modifier region, while 我 咿 阅 啊 书 在 家。 attaches it to the book.

Several opening topics may occur in sequence, each ending with a comma: 昨，在 家，我 咿 阅 啊 书。 A following subject is still required in an ordinary statement. Existing subjectless constructions keep their normal form after a topic:

193. 在 家，啊 人。

zài jiā，ā rén。

At home, there is someone. The location is an opening topic; the existential clause has no subject.

Here 在 家 is a location topic, and 啊 人 is the subjectless existential clause. No location phrase is treated as a subject. The same boundary rule applies before an ambient-quality clause or a command.

A noun topic does not automatically replace an argument inside the clause. When the topic is the object, keep a pronoun in the normal object position:

89. 那 书，我 咿 了 阅 啊 其。

nà shū，wǒ yī le yuè ā qí。

As for that book, I read it. The object position still contains a pronoun.

The subject is 我 and the object is 其, referring to 那 书. The topic does not change SVO order or permit a missing object.

The topic position belongs to the sentence level. A comma inside an open dependent expression still follows the return-boundary rule (§15.2); it cannot create a separate topic position inside that expression. Use the ordinary internal modifier positions in a 可 clause, or express it as a separate sentence. Quoted sentences have their own sentence domain.

Coordinators such as 和, 或, and 但 connect clauses (§20.1). They sit outside the topic-and-clause pattern and do not themselves form opening topics. For example, 但 昨，我 咿 不 来。 has the coordinator 但 followed by the topic 昨 and its required comma.

Third-person reference follows context. Repeat a noun when 其 could refer to several plausible antecedents. An ordinary transitive statement retains its object even when previously mentioned; use a pronoun. An independently licensed objectless verb use is a different frame, not arbitrary omission. Neither creates a covert passive.

A time or setting established in a short passage can remain in force as context. It need not be repeated on every verb. A change of time, actor, or location should be stated when it would otherwise be unclear.

Quantifier scope

全 may occur inside a verbal predicate to quantify the members of its plural subject. Its order relative to negation matters:

90. 我 们 咿 不 全 来。

wǒ men yī bù quán lái。

Not all of us come / will come.

91. 我 们 咿 全 不 来。

wǒ men yī quán bù lái。

All of us refrain from coming / none of us comes.

不 全 denies the all claim; 全 不 applies the negative to every member. Neither word is a meaningless intensifier. Other difficult scope combinations should be expanded into short clauses instead of resolved by an unwritten exception.

For explicit distribution, 每 modifies the subject noun:

92. 每 人 咿 有 啊 一 书。

měi rén yī yǒu ā yī shū。

Each person has one book.

There is no grammatical agreement change on the verb or object to accompany a plural or distributive subject.

22. Numbers, measures, and dates

The cardinal digits are 零、一、二、三、四、五、六、七、八、九. The main decimal units are 十、百、千、万、亿. Read or write numbers by decimal composition, grouping large numbers around 万 and 亿.

Within a block below ten thousand, use the descending place units and 零 to show an internal gap. 十 through 十 九 may omit the initial 一; use an explicit coefficient for a hundred, thousand, or ten-thousand unit in ordinary counting. Large-number sequences such as 一 百 万 follow the regular number rules and are not separate words. Digit-by-digit reading is always available for identifiers and long strings; Arabic numerals are also permitted in writing.

Put a number before its counted noun. There are no obligatory grammatical classifiers. A measure expression uses number + actual unit + measured substance or object. The unit's meaning supplies the measured quantity.

第 precedes a number to form an ordinal: 第 三 书, the third book. 点 separates a decimal fraction, whose following digits are read individually. For time of day, use explicit clock notation such as 03:10. Durations may use technical unit notation, for example 3 h 10 min. 钟 supplies hour/clock time and 秒 seconds; 分 means division, not minutes.

Calendar expressions place larger units first: year 年, month 月, day 日. Thus 2026 年 9 月 7 日 identifies a calendar date. The month and day slots distinguish 月 from a moon and 日 from the sun. No tense marking is added to a clause merely because it contains a date.

大 is not the number million, and 地 is not trillion. Ordinary large numbers use the forms above. SI prefixes belong to explicitly recognizable unit expressions and do not change this numeral grammar.

Units and exact quantities

Unit symbols such as m, L, min, s, and J belong to explicitly labeled technical notation, not the spoken word inventory. Write a number and its symbol, and define any unfamiliar unit. 米 means rice, 分 division, 升 rise, and 吉 is retired. They do not acquire metre, minute, litre, or giga- senses in ordinary language. A spoken precise unit may be explained by its technical definition or named as an external identifier; there is no disguised new Sino-Mini word for it. Number constructions such as 一 百 万 and 十 亿 follow the regular multiplication/grouping rules.

23. Connected examples

These passages use only the constructions already defined. A time frame carries across successive clauses; no extra tense helpers are needed.

A book bought yesterday

昨，我 咿 了 买 啊 一 书。我 咿 买 给 你 啊 其。今，这 书 诶 上 桌。你 咿 欲 阅 啊 其 吗？

Yesterday I bought a book. I bought it for you. Now this book is on the table. Do you want to read it?

The second sentence inherits yesterday's time. 给 after 买 and before 啊 marks the beneficiary. 今 shifts the discussion to the present location. The question asks about desire; it does not assert that reading has happened.

A plan with a condition

继 日，我 咿 往 啊 家。若 可 你 咿 来，则，我 咿 给 给 你 啊 这 书。当 可 你 咿 在 阅 啊 其，我 咿 写 啊 字。

Tomorrow I will go home. If you come, I will give you this book. While you are reading it, I will write.

The future comes from 继 日 and the conditional plan. 可 introduces each dependent clause; a comma and pause mark the return to the main clause. 往 retains its motion meaning. 在 inside the last dependent clause marks the reading as ongoing relative to the planned writing.

Completion, experience, and ability

我 咿 过 阅 啊 这 书。但 我 咿 不 了 完 阅 啊 其。今 日，我 咿 能 完 阅 啊 其。

I have read this book before. But I have not finished it. Today I can finish it.

Prior reading experience, completing the book, and having the ability to complete it are three separate claims. None should be collapsed into a single English-style perfect construction.

24. Quick reference

Sources and edition history

Mini's introductory guide, advanced guide, and glossary provide the predecessor material. Chinese readings and character senses use the retained CC-CEDICT / MDBG snapshot. These sources do not define Sino-Mini grammar.

The revision-8 changes, phrase migration, and source ledger record current scope. Reference 1.5.1 and earlier output directories are historical editions. The full Moloch translation is a historical draft and remains unpublished; current reading samples are revised separately.